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嬰兒固體食物添加及維生素補(bǔ)充

來(lái)源:泰然健康網(wǎng) 時(shí)間:2024年12月07日 12:16

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Author:Teresa K Duryea, MDSection Editors:Jan E Drutz, MDKathleen J Motil, MD, PhDDeputy Editor:Mary M Torchia, MD??

引言?

喂養(yǎng)1歲以?xún)?nèi)嬰兒的主要目標(biāo)是獲得充足的營(yíng)養(yǎng)素以使生長(zhǎng)狀況達(dá)到最佳水平[1]。實(shí)現(xiàn)能量攝入與能量需求之間的平衡是首要目標(biāo)[2]。次要目標(biāo)是習(xí)得口腔運(yùn)動(dòng)技能和建立恰當(dāng)?shù)倪M(jìn)食行為。??

喂養(yǎng)行為的形成是一個(gè)“行為學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程”[1],其取決于機(jī)體結(jié)構(gòu)完整性和神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)成熟度,受到個(gè)體氣質(zhì)、人際關(guān)系、環(huán)境因素和文化的影響。2歲之前的喂養(yǎng)方式將影響人一生的進(jìn)食模式,因此養(yǎng)成健康的進(jìn)食習(xí)慣非常重要[2-4]。??

本文將介紹出生后第1年中嬰兒輔食[有時(shí)稱(chēng)作泥糊食物(beikost)或者“斷奶食物”]添加,以及維生素和礦物質(zhì)的補(bǔ)充需求。母乳喂養(yǎng),對(duì)幼兒和學(xué)齡前兒童的膳食推薦,以及高過(guò)敏風(fēng)險(xiǎn)嬰兒的固體輔食添加問(wèn)題將單獨(dú)討論。??

(參見(jiàn) “母乳喂養(yǎng)對(duì)嬰兒的益處”)??

(參見(jiàn) “母乳喂養(yǎng):父母教育及支持”)??

(參見(jiàn) “幼兒、學(xué)齡前兒童和學(xué)齡兒童的膳食推薦”)??

(參見(jiàn) “為有變應(yīng)性疾病風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的嬰兒添加配方奶”)??

(參見(jiàn) “為嬰兒和兒童添加高致敏性食物”)??

嬰兒的營(yíng)養(yǎng)需求?

嬰兒的能量需要量因月齡不同而存在差異,各月齡的需要量大致如下(圖 1)[5]:??

0-2月齡–100-110kcal/(kg·d)??

3-5月齡–85-95kcal/(kg·d)??

6-8月齡–80-85kcal/(kg·d)??

9-11月齡–80kcal/(kg·d)??

嬰兒的實(shí)際能量需要量因個(gè)體特征而異,這些特征包括醫(yī)療需要和追趕生長(zhǎng)[5]。??

影響能量攝入的因素包括進(jìn)食次數(shù)、攝入的食物數(shù)量、食物的能量密度和食物分量大小[6]。嬰兒對(duì)能量攝入有與生俱來(lái)的自我調(diào)節(jié)能力,例如,進(jìn)食次數(shù)較少時(shí)其每餐進(jìn)食量會(huì)較大,進(jìn)食能量密度高的食物時(shí)進(jìn)食量會(huì)較小[6]。然而,嬰兒天生的自我調(diào)節(jié)能力可能會(huì)被一些削弱饑餓驅(qū)動(dòng)性進(jìn)食行為的因素所壓制,例如強(qiáng)迫喂養(yǎng)、限制進(jìn)食和環(huán)境誘導(dǎo)[6,7]。??

嬰兒對(duì)特定營(yíng)養(yǎng)素的需要量見(jiàn)表(表 1)。??

母乳和嬰兒配方奶?

母乳是足月嬰兒的理想食物[8]。攝入充足的母乳或市售嬰兒配方奶能夠滿(mǎn)足6月齡以?xún)?nèi)嬰兒的營(yíng)養(yǎng)需求。此后,添加輔食有助于補(bǔ)充能量、鐵、維生素和微量元素,并幫助嬰兒為更加多樣化的膳食做好準(zhǔn)備[8]。??

其他類(lèi)型的奶并不適合12月齡以?xún)?nèi)的嬰兒,例如未經(jīng)改良的牛奶、羊奶以及除市售嬰兒大豆配方奶之外的植物奶。這些奶的蛋白質(zhì)、脂肪和碳水化合物比例不當(dāng),或者維生素或礦物質(zhì)的含量不足(如,維生素D、葉酸)。??

輔食喂養(yǎng)?

輔食[有時(shí)稱(chēng)為泥糊食物(beikost)或者“斷奶食物”]是指除母乳或嬰兒配方奶以外的固體食物和液體,嬰兒在從液態(tài)膳食過(guò)渡到改良成人膳食時(shí)需攝入輔食。接近1歲時(shí),大部分健康嬰兒約一半的能量需求將來(lái)自輔食[2]。??

低中質(zhì)量的隨機(jī)試驗(yàn)證據(jù)表明,教育干預(yù)(例如,指導(dǎo)照料者何時(shí)添加輔食、如何洗手及提供各種食物)可以改善輔食喂養(yǎng)實(shí)踐;而教育干預(yù)是否影響嬰兒生長(zhǎng)結(jié)局尚不清楚[9]。??

素食家庭的輔食喂養(yǎng)見(jiàn)附表(表 2)及其他專(zhuān)題。(參見(jiàn) “兒童素食”,關(guān)于‘將素食或嚴(yán)格素食作為嬰兒的斷奶膳食’一節(jié))??

何時(shí)開(kāi)始添加輔食??

最佳時(shí)機(jī) — 根據(jù)嬰兒的生理需求和神經(jīng)發(fā)育成熟度,開(kāi)始添加輔食的最佳時(shí)機(jī)為4-6月齡[10]。雖然年齡通常能夠很好地預(yù)測(cè)嬰兒是否準(zhǔn)備好進(jìn)食固體食物,但是僅將年齡作為預(yù)測(cè)指標(biāo)可能會(huì)忽視嬰兒的個(gè)體需求,特別是早產(chǎn)兒。(參見(jiàn)下文‘發(fā)育技能’)??

到4月齡時(shí),大多數(shù)嬰兒的體重已達(dá)到出生體重的2倍。到6月齡時(shí),輔食已成為支持生長(zhǎng)、充饑、補(bǔ)充能量和滿(mǎn)足營(yíng)養(yǎng)素需求所必須的[11]。6月齡之后,純母乳喂養(yǎng)嬰兒攝入的母乳量通常已不能滿(mǎn)足其對(duì)能量、蛋白質(zhì)、鐵、鋅和一些脂溶性維生素的需求[12]。(參見(jiàn)上文‘?huà)雰旱臓I(yíng)養(yǎng)需求’)??

對(duì)于母乳喂養(yǎng)的嬰兒,等到至少6月齡再開(kāi)始添加輔食可預(yù)防胃腸道感染,且不會(huì)損害嬰兒的生長(zhǎng)。一篇系統(tǒng)評(píng)價(jià)分析了在資源豐富和資源有限國(guó)家開(kāi)展的對(duì)照試驗(yàn)和觀察性研究,證實(shí)純母乳喂養(yǎng)6個(gè)月的嬰兒與4個(gè)月時(shí)開(kāi)始添加輔食的嬰兒生長(zhǎng)情況相當(dāng),但前者更少發(fā)生胃腸道感染[13]。(參見(jiàn) “母乳喂養(yǎng)對(duì)嬰兒的益處”)??

發(fā)育技能 — 應(yīng)在嬰兒能夠在支撐下坐穩(wěn)并能很好地控制頭頸之后再添加固體輔食[14]。大多數(shù)照料者都能夠很容易地正確判斷出嬰兒生長(zhǎng)發(fā)育的這一里程碑事件。能在支撐下坐穩(wěn)的嬰兒通常已經(jīng)具備成功進(jìn)食固體食物所需的其他技能:??

充分的軀干控制能力(表現(xiàn)為在俯臥時(shí)能夠伸直手肘支撐身體)[10]。??

能將泥糊狀食物推到后咽部以便吞咽。??

挺舌反射(extrusion reflex)消失(通常在4-5月齡)。挺舌反射是指嬰兒抬高舌頭將放入口中的食物及其他任何物體推出。在挺舌反射沒(méi)有消失之前,用勺子喂食非常困難,會(huì)給照料者和嬰兒都帶來(lái)挫敗感。??

嬰兒通過(guò)把手放到口中、把玩具放到口中,以及以不同的方式探索用口腔感受這些物體,能為接受不同質(zhì)地的輔食做準(zhǔn)備[11]。??

能夠表達(dá)對(duì)食物的興趣(張開(kāi)嘴、身體前傾)和飽足感(身體后仰或者轉(zhuǎn)開(kāi))。這些行為通常在5-6月齡出現(xiàn)。??

進(jìn)食塊狀食物和手指食物還需要其他一些技能。(參見(jiàn)下文‘如何推進(jìn)’)??

過(guò)早添加輔食 — 過(guò)早添加輔食是指在4月齡之前開(kāi)始添加輔食。??

未經(jīng)證實(shí)的益處 — 照料者常稱(chēng)盡早添加谷物有助于嬰兒睡整夜覺(jué),但這尚未完全證實(shí),研究結(jié)果并不一致。??

一項(xiàng)納入了1303例純母乳喂養(yǎng)嬰兒的開(kāi)放性隨機(jī)試驗(yàn)顯示,與6月齡時(shí)開(kāi)始添加固體輔食的嬰兒相比,3月齡時(shí)開(kāi)始添加固體輔食的嬰兒睡眠持續(xù)時(shí)間更長(zhǎng),且夜醒和“非常嚴(yán)重”的睡眠問(wèn)題更少[15]。但由于缺乏盲法且采用主觀結(jié)局指標(biāo)(即,每1-3個(gè)月進(jìn)行1次在線問(wèn)卷調(diào)查),上述試驗(yàn)結(jié)果受到限制。另一項(xiàng)隨機(jī)試驗(yàn)將106例嬰兒分配至5周齡或4月齡時(shí)開(kāi)始在睡前用奶瓶喂食谷物[1湯匙/盎司(30mL)],兩組中睡整夜覺(jué)的嬰兒比例相近[16]。??

對(duì)沒(méi)有過(guò)敏風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的嬰兒過(guò)早添加致敏性食物的相關(guān)內(nèi)容將單獨(dú)討論。(參見(jiàn) “為嬰兒和兒童添加高致敏性食物”,關(guān)于‘對(duì)一般人群添加輔食’一節(jié))??

潛在危害 — 在4月齡之前添加輔食可能有害:??

在嬰兒尚未具備安全吞咽固體食物的口腔運(yùn)動(dòng)能力之前,喂食固體食物可能會(huì)引起誤吸[17]。??

在4-6月齡之前添加輔食可能會(huì)引起能量或營(yíng)養(yǎng)素?cái)z入不足或過(guò)多,并且增加腎負(fù)荷[18]。??

有些研究發(fā)現(xiàn)過(guò)早添加固體食物與肥胖風(fēng)險(xiǎn)增加相關(guān)[19-26],但并不是所有研究都支持這一觀點(diǎn)[27-30]。(參見(jiàn) “兒童和青少年肥胖的定義、流行病學(xué)和病因”,關(guān)于‘代謝程序化’一節(jié))??

對(duì)1型糖尿病高危嬰兒在3月齡之前添加谷類(lèi)食物可能會(huì)增加其產(chǎn)生胰島細(xì)胞抗體的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。(參見(jiàn) “1型糖尿病的發(fā)病機(jī)制”,關(guān)于‘谷物’一節(jié))??

嬰兒喂養(yǎng)方式與乳糜瀉的關(guān)系將單獨(dú)討論。(參見(jiàn) “兒童乳糜瀉的流行病學(xué)、發(fā)病機(jī)制和臨床表現(xiàn)”,關(guān)于‘?huà)雰浩诤蛢和谠缙诘奈桂B(yǎng)’一節(jié))??

過(guò)晚添加輔食的可能危害 — 到嬰兒6月齡之后再添加輔食也可能引起一些不良反應(yīng)[31-36]:??

能量攝入不足引起生長(zhǎng)速度減慢(參見(jiàn) “資源豐富國(guó)家2歲以下兒童體重增長(zhǎng)不良的病因和評(píng)估”,關(guān)于‘病因’一節(jié))??

配方奶喂養(yǎng)的嬰兒兒童期體脂含量增加[25]??

如果母乳喂養(yǎng)的嬰兒未按照推薦意見(jiàn)補(bǔ)鐵,那么過(guò)晚添加輔食可能會(huì)引發(fā)缺鐵(參見(jiàn) “嬰兒和12歲以下兒童鐵缺乏的篩查、預(yù)防、臨床表現(xiàn)及診斷”,關(guān)于‘針對(duì)補(bǔ)鐵的推薦’一節(jié))??

口腔運(yùn)動(dòng)功能發(fā)育遲滯??

厭食固體食物??

發(fā)生特應(yīng)性疾病(哮喘、變態(tài)反應(yīng)性鼻炎、濕疹、食物過(guò)敏);為過(guò)敏性疾病高危嬰兒添加固體食物的相關(guān)內(nèi)容將單獨(dú)討論(參見(jiàn) “為嬰兒和兒童添加高致敏性食物”,關(guān)于‘對(duì)高危人群添加高致敏性食物’一節(jié))??

1型糖尿?。粚?duì)于1型糖尿病高危嬰兒,在7月齡之后再添加谷類(lèi)食物可能會(huì)增加其產(chǎn)生胰島細(xì)胞抗體的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(參見(jiàn) “1型糖尿病的發(fā)病機(jī)制”)??

喂養(yǎng)何種食物以及如何推進(jìn)?

提供給幼兒的輔食種類(lèi)受到文化、傳統(tǒng)和個(gè)人喜好的影響[1,12,37]。嬰兒期建立的喂養(yǎng)行為和偏好似乎會(huì)持續(xù)到兒童期早期[38-40]。??

每次健康體檢時(shí)都應(yīng)監(jiān)測(cè)嬰兒的生長(zhǎng)狀況,以便及時(shí)發(fā)現(xiàn)并解決生長(zhǎng)緩慢和其他營(yíng)養(yǎng)問(wèn)題。(參見(jiàn) “肥胖兒童或青少年的臨床評(píng)估”和 “嬰兒和青春期前兒童的正常生長(zhǎng)模式”,關(guān)于‘生長(zhǎng)評(píng)價(jià)’一節(jié)和 “資源豐富國(guó)家2歲以下兒童體重增長(zhǎng)不良的病因和評(píng)估”,關(guān)于‘定義’一節(jié))??

下文的指南是根據(jù)AAP和ESPGHAN營(yíng)養(yǎng)委員會(huì)的推薦意見(jiàn)制定的[12,14,41-43]。??

喂養(yǎng)何種食物 — 為了滿(mǎn)足嬰兒生長(zhǎng)、發(fā)育和健康所需的全面營(yíng)養(yǎng),輔食喂養(yǎng)的同時(shí)應(yīng)該繼續(xù)喂養(yǎng)母乳或者市售嬰兒配方奶(表 1)[14]。隨著固體食物的添加,配方奶或母乳的攝入量應(yīng)繼續(xù)維持在一日28-34盎司(830-1000mL/d)(表 3)。(參見(jiàn)上文‘?huà)雰旱臓I(yíng)養(yǎng)需求’)??

應(yīng)首先添加單一成分的食物[14]。AAP營(yíng)養(yǎng)委員會(huì)建議首先添加?jì)雰汗任锖腿饽?,因?yàn)檫@些食物可提供鐵和鋅,而鐵和鋅是美國(guó)嬰兒膳食中最可能缺乏的營(yíng)養(yǎng)素[14,44,45]。肉泥可提供血紅素鐵(生物利用度高于非血紅素鐵),且可增加非血紅素鐵的吸收[46]。嬰兒接受了上述食物后,可以繼續(xù)添加水果泥和蔬菜泥。(參見(jiàn)下文‘谷類(lèi)食物’和‘泥糊狀食物’)??

為了促進(jìn)鐵的吸收,一日應(yīng)該至少有一餐包含維生素C豐富的食物。??

不限制嬰兒的脂肪和膽固醇攝入。??

不鼓勵(lì)添加糖和鹽[12,47,48]。添加糖和鹽并不會(huì)增加?jì)雰簩?duì)食物的接受程度。嬰兒期避免添加糖和鹽,有助于降低日后對(duì)甜味和咸味的感受閾值[12,49,50]。??

過(guò)多攝入高能量密度的輔食可能會(huì)引起嬰兒期體重增長(zhǎng)過(guò)多,這可能造成長(zhǎng)期影響[51-53]。(參見(jiàn) “兒童和青少年肥胖的定義、流行病學(xué)和病因”,關(guān)于‘代謝程序化’一節(jié))??

谷類(lèi)食物 — 單一谷物成分的嬰兒谷物能夠提供額外的能量和鐵,是第一口輔食的良好選擇[54]。米粉的致敏性最小而且很容易獲得,故傳統(tǒng)上作為最初添加的輔食。如果照料者擔(dān)心米粉可能存在砷污染,則可建議其使用多種不同的谷類(lèi)食物[55],包括燕麥制品[56-59]。對(duì)于推遲到6月齡后再添加小麥制品可預(yù)防發(fā)生小麥過(guò)敏,相關(guān)證據(jù)不足。(參見(jiàn) “砷暴露與中毒”,關(guān)于‘飲食攝入’一節(jié)和 “為嬰兒和兒童添加高致敏性食物”,關(guān)于‘對(duì)一般人群添加輔食’一節(jié))??

調(diào)制嬰兒谷物時(shí)可以添加母乳、嬰兒配方奶或水。最初,應(yīng)在母乳喂養(yǎng)或奶瓶喂養(yǎng)結(jié)束時(shí)為嬰兒加入少量的谷物(1茶匙)。應(yīng)逐漸增加谷物的量,到6-8月齡時(shí)達(dá)到大約一日半杯的目標(biāo)量(表 3)。??

應(yīng)使用勺子喂嬰兒吃谷物。勺子喂養(yǎng)可加強(qiáng)口腔運(yùn)動(dòng)功能,后者可影響語(yǔ)言發(fā)育。??

不應(yīng)該使用奶瓶喂養(yǎng)谷物,除非因嬰兒有胃食管反流(gastroesophageal reflux, GER)而需要如此。用奶瓶喂養(yǎng)谷物會(huì)推遲嬰兒學(xué)習(xí)用勺子進(jìn)食的機(jī)會(huì)。此外,用奶瓶喂養(yǎng)谷物會(huì)增加配方奶的能量密度,或干擾機(jī)體對(duì)飽足感和口渴的信號(hào),從而可能促進(jìn)肥胖的發(fā)生。對(duì)于采用奶瓶喂食谷物的GER嬰兒,當(dāng)其發(fā)育程度達(dá)到能夠接受固體食物的水平時(shí),也應(yīng)該用勺子喂食谷物。(參見(jiàn) “嬰兒胃食管反流”和 “早產(chǎn)兒胃食管反流”)??

泥糊狀食物 — 應(yīng)逐漸添加多種泥糊狀食物,以提供多樣化的平衡“膳食”。推薦先從單一成分的泥糊狀食物開(kāi)始添加。AAP營(yíng)養(yǎng)委員會(huì)建議,嬰兒谷物和肉泥是極佳的初始輔食,嬰兒容易接受,而且能夠補(bǔ)充必需的鐵[14,44]。下文將討論如何逐漸推進(jìn)泥糊狀食物的復(fù)雜程度和質(zhì)地。(參見(jiàn)下文‘泥糊狀食物’)??

到嬰兒8-12月齡時(shí),應(yīng)鼓勵(lì)照料者每日至少給予嬰兒1次水果和蔬菜,提供的種類(lèi)應(yīng)多樣化,對(duì)于嬰兒拒絕過(guò)的水果和蔬菜可在以后再次嘗試[39,40,60-62]。多樣化是關(guān)鍵,對(duì)于進(jìn)食蔬菜的頻率應(yīng)高于還是低于水果,目前相關(guān)證據(jù)不足。反復(fù)嘗試可增加?jì)雰簩?duì)新食物的接受程度,一種新食物可能最多需要嘗試15次才能被接受[54,63-66]。由于母乳可傳遞多種食物的風(fēng)味,故母乳喂養(yǎng)可能有助于嬰兒接受固體食物[63,64]。??

嬰兒喂養(yǎng)行為研究Ⅱ(Infant Feeding Practices StudyⅡ)的縱向隨訪發(fā)現(xiàn),嬰兒期每日攝入水果和蔬菜不足1次與兒童6歲時(shí)較少攝入水果和蔬菜相關(guān)[39]。在另一項(xiàng)縱向研究中,與開(kāi)始添加輔食時(shí)攝入蔬菜種類(lèi)較少或未攝入蔬菜的兒童相比,開(kāi)始添加輔食時(shí)攝入了多種蔬菜的兒童在6歲時(shí)更愿意嘗試新的蔬菜、攝入了更多新的蔬菜并且更喜歡新的蔬菜[40]。對(duì)于嬰兒最初不喜歡的蔬菜,隨后連續(xù)8餐都給予嬰兒這種蔬菜可增加其對(duì)這種蔬菜的接受程度,并使其在3歲和6歲時(shí)繼續(xù)喜愛(ài)并食用這種蔬菜。??

家庭自制的泥糊狀食物–出于多種原因(如,新鮮程度、豐富種類(lèi)和質(zhì)地、降低成本、避免防腐劑等),照料者可能會(huì)選擇在家自己制作泥糊狀食物。美國(guó)FDA(US Food and Drug Administration)提供了家庭安全制作嬰兒食物的指南。??

如果在家制作泥糊狀食物,那么需要著重確保能量和營(yíng)養(yǎng)素含量充足(表 1)。一些觀察性研究發(fā)現(xiàn),很多家庭自制食物中某些營(yíng)養(yǎng)素的含量偏低(能量、脂肪、蛋白質(zhì)、鐵和鋅),而且與市售食物相比,家庭自制食物的營(yíng)養(yǎng)素含量波動(dòng)更大[67-69]。(參見(jiàn)上文‘?huà)雰旱臓I(yíng)養(yǎng)需求’)??

不應(yīng)給小于4月齡的嬰兒喂食家庭自制的菠菜、甜菜、青豆、南瓜和胡蘿卜泥。這些食物所含的硝酸鹽可能足以引起高鐵血紅蛋白血癥[70,71]。(參見(jiàn) “高鐵血紅蛋白血癥”,關(guān)于‘硝酸鹽和亞硝酸鹽’一節(jié))??

照料者應(yīng)該仔細(xì)閱讀食物標(biāo)簽上的鈉含量,并購(gòu)買(mǎi)“未添加鹽”的產(chǎn)品。家庭制作泥糊狀嬰兒食物時(shí)不應(yīng)使用添加有大量鹽和糖的罐裝食物。0-6月齡嬰兒的膳食鈉推薦攝入量為110 mg/d,7-12月齡的嬰兒為370mg/d[72]。??

泥糊狀食物的儲(chǔ)存–必須注意避免泥糊狀食物變質(zhì)。罐裝嬰兒食品開(kāi)封后最多冷藏保存48小時(shí),之后應(yīng)丟棄。市售食品應(yīng)該分裝到碗里再食用,不要直接從容器內(nèi)取食;碗內(nèi)殘留的食物應(yīng)該丟棄。??

應(yīng)該避免和不用避免的食物 — 1歲以?xún)?nèi)的嬰兒應(yīng)避免食用某些食物,包括可能引起窒息的圓球狀堅(jiān)硬食物(如,堅(jiān)果、葡萄、生胡蘿卜和圓球狀糖果)[14],以及蜂蜜(因?yàn)榉涿劭赡芤饗雰喝舛局卸?[73]。(參見(jiàn) “Botulism”)??

此外,AAP建議不要給12月齡以下的嬰兒喂食未經(jīng)改良的牛奶。(參見(jiàn)下文‘應(yīng)該避免的飲料’)??

只要沒(méi)有窒息風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(如,涂薄薄的一層花生醬,或者將花生/花生醬與水果或蔬菜一起打成泥),即使嬰兒有發(fā)生過(guò)敏性疾病的風(fēng)險(xiǎn),也可在嬰兒4-6個(gè)月時(shí)添加高致敏性食物(如,蛋、魚(yú)、花生/花生醬和木本堅(jiān)果)。對(duì)于高風(fēng)險(xiǎn)兒童,即有一級(jí)親屬被證實(shí)存在過(guò)敏性疾病,過(guò)去曾建議推遲到4-6月齡以后再添加高致敏性食物,以防發(fā)生特應(yīng)性疾病。然而,許多專(zhuān)業(yè)團(tuán)體,包括AAP營(yíng)養(yǎng)委員會(huì)和變態(tài)反應(yīng)與免疫學(xué)組,以及ESPGHAN營(yíng)養(yǎng)委員會(huì),均未發(fā)現(xiàn)明確的證據(jù)可證實(shí)這一措施有顯著的保護(hù)作用。為嬰兒添加高致敏性食物的相關(guān)內(nèi)容將單獨(dú)討論。(參見(jiàn) “為有變應(yīng)性疾病風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的嬰兒添加配方奶”和 “為嬰兒和兒童添加高致敏性食物”)??

應(yīng)該避免的飲料 — 1歲前嬰兒應(yīng)該避免攝入某些飲料:??

牛奶–AAP營(yíng)養(yǎng)委員會(huì)推薦不要給1歲以?xún)?nèi)的嬰兒喂食全脂牛奶,因?yàn)檫@會(huì)增加腎負(fù)荷并增加缺鐵的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[74-77]。(參見(jiàn) “嬰兒和12歲以下兒童鐵缺乏的篩查、預(yù)防、臨床表現(xiàn)及診斷”,關(guān)于‘膳食因素’一節(jié))??

ESPGHAN營(yíng)養(yǎng)委員會(huì)建議,不要把牛奶作為12月齡以?xún)?nèi)嬰兒的主要飲料,可以在輔食中添加少量牛奶[12]。??

植物奶–除嬰兒大豆配方奶外,以植物為原料(如,大米、扁桃仁、椰子)的奶不能滿(mǎn)足嬰兒的營(yíng)養(yǎng)需求,故通常不應(yīng)給嬰兒飲用[78,79]。然而,對(duì)于必須避免攝入牛奶和大豆配方奶,且也不肯攝入水解配方奶的嬰兒,植物奶可能是唯一的選擇。對(duì)于這類(lèi)嬰兒,可能需要咨詢(xún)營(yíng)養(yǎng)師,以評(píng)估總體膳食營(yíng)養(yǎng)素?cái)z入情況。??

果汁–12月齡以下的嬰兒通常不應(yīng)攝入果汁(包括100%純果汁)。對(duì)于6-12月齡的嬰兒,我們建議將完整的水果搗爛或打成果泥后攝入,而非攝入100%純果汁,除非因醫(yī)學(xué)原因需要攝入。該建議與2017年AAP關(guān)于嬰兒、兒童和青少年飲用果汁的推薦和一份專(zhuān)家小組共識(shí)一致[41,79]。若照料者并非因醫(yī)學(xué)需要而決定給嬰兒喂食果汁,應(yīng)將100%純果汁的每日攝入量限制在不超過(guò)4盎司(120mL)。??

果汁對(duì)嬰兒沒(méi)有營(yíng)養(yǎng)益處,且可能造成不良后果,如營(yíng)養(yǎng)低下、營(yíng)養(yǎng)過(guò)剩、腹瀉、腸胃氣脹、腹部膨隆及齲齒[80-85]。雖然鈣強(qiáng)化果汁可提供生物可利用的鈣,但缺乏母乳和嬰兒配方奶中的其他營(yíng)養(yǎng)素(如,鎂和蛋白質(zhì))。(參見(jiàn) “Preventive dental care and counseling for infants and young children”, section on ‘Dietary habits’和 “資源豐富國(guó)家2歲以下兒童體重增長(zhǎng)不良的病因和評(píng)估”,關(guān)于‘病因’一節(jié))??

因醫(yī)學(xué)原因而需要攝入果汁時(shí)(如,用于治療便秘時(shí),或用于缺鐵嬰兒以促進(jìn)鐵吸收時(shí)),嬰兒應(yīng)攝入100%純果汁而非“果汁飲料”,后者添加有甜味劑和香料,而且在嬰兒達(dá)到合適年齡時(shí),應(yīng)使用杯子喂果汁。應(yīng)對(duì)果汁進(jìn)行巴氏消毒,未經(jīng)巴氏消毒的果汁可能含有病原體,如大腸埃希菌(Escherichia coli)O157:H7。(參見(jiàn) “嬰兒及12歲以下兒童鐵缺乏的治療”,關(guān)于‘口服補(bǔ)鐵治療’一節(jié)和 “資源豐富國(guó)家急性感染性腹瀉和其他食源性疾病的病因”和 “嬰兒和兒童近期發(fā)生的便秘”,關(guān)于‘近期發(fā)生的便秘’一節(jié))??

果汁在脫水治療中的應(yīng)用將單獨(dú)討論。(參見(jiàn) “口服補(bǔ)液療法”,關(guān)于‘家庭常用的飲料和液體’一節(jié))??

含糖飲料–嬰兒期應(yīng)避免飲用含糖飲料(如,蘇打水、茶、咖啡和果味飲料)[48,86]。嬰兒喂養(yǎng)行為研究Ⅱ的縱向隨訪發(fā)現(xiàn),嬰兒期攝入含糖飲料可能與6歲時(shí)發(fā)生肥胖的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)增加相關(guān)(17.0% vs 8.6%)[87]。攝入含糖飲料也與患齲齒的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)增加相關(guān)[88,89]。??

喂多少 — 嬰兒期過(guò)度喂養(yǎng)可能導(dǎo)致體重增長(zhǎng)過(guò)多,這可能造成長(zhǎng)期影響[51-53]。嬰兒出現(xiàn)吃飽的表現(xiàn)時(shí)(如,向后仰身或者轉(zhuǎn)開(kāi)),應(yīng)允許其停止進(jìn)食[14,90-92]。不鼓勵(lì)為了讓嬰兒睡整夜覺(jué)而在臨睡前盡可能多地喂食[47]。沒(méi)有證據(jù)表明這一做法有效[16]。這一做法不顧嬰兒對(duì)能量攝入的天生調(diào)控能力,可能引起過(guò)度進(jìn)食。(參見(jiàn) “兒童和青少年肥胖的定義、流行病學(xué)和病因”,關(guān)于‘代謝程序化’一節(jié))??

如何推進(jìn) — 隨著嬰兒進(jìn)食能力的發(fā)展,應(yīng)逐漸增加輔食的復(fù)雜程度和質(zhì)地[10,12]。??

泥糊狀食物 — 應(yīng)每3-5日添加1次,每次添加1種單一成分的食物,以便識(shí)別嬰兒對(duì)食物是否不耐受[14]。AAP營(yíng)養(yǎng)委員會(huì)建議,嬰兒谷物和肉泥是非常好的初始輔食;嬰兒接受了這些食物之后,可接著添加水果泥和蔬菜泥[14]。目標(biāo)是到嬰兒1歲時(shí)已添加種類(lèi)、味道和質(zhì)地多樣的輔食,以及保證母乳加輔食可滿(mǎn)足嬰兒的營(yíng)養(yǎng)需求(表 1)。(參見(jiàn)上文‘?huà)雰旱臓I(yíng)養(yǎng)需求’)??

第一個(gè)添加的固體食物應(yīng)該是細(xì)膩的泥糊狀,僅含一種成分,且不應(yīng)該含有添加劑(鹽、糖)。在嬰兒耐受各個(gè)成分后,可以喂以混合食物(如,水果和谷類(lèi)食物、肉和蔬菜)。??

在嬰兒能夠耐受較稀的泥糊狀食物,并且能夠獨(dú)自坐和嘗試用手抓食物之后,可以添加較稠的泥糊狀食物和搗爛的軟食[92]。在8月齡左右,嬰兒通常已能適應(yīng)濃稠的泥糊狀食物,而且舌頭已發(fā)育得足夠靈活,能夠咀嚼和吞咽分量更大的、質(zhì)地更多樣的食物(磨碎的食物、含有柔軟小顆粒的搗爛的食物)(表 3)[12,92]。質(zhì)地更粗的混合物通常為含小片意大利面、蔬菜或肉的泥糊狀食物。逐步豐富食物的質(zhì)地對(duì)于嬰兒習(xí)得正常的咀嚼吞咽能力以及接受不同質(zhì)地的食物非常重要[34]。??

手指食物 — 8-10月齡時(shí),嬰兒獨(dú)立吃手指食物所需的技能開(kāi)始完善。這些技能包括獨(dú)立坐,抓取、擺布和放下食物所需的手眼協(xié)調(diào)能力,咀嚼(即使在牙齒萌出之前)和吞咽能力。到12月齡時(shí),嬰兒手抓的能力發(fā)展成熟,能夠進(jìn)行精細(xì)的鉗狀抓握,提高了進(jìn)食手指食物的能力。??

手抓食物可以是切碎的、軟爛的食物(如,小塊軟嫩的水果、蔬菜、奶酪,熟透的肉、煮熟的意大利面等),也可以是容易分解的食物(如,嬰兒餅干、干麥片)[92]。應(yīng)該避免有窒息風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的食物[14],包括熱狗、堅(jiān)果(特別是花生)、葡萄、葡萄干、生胡蘿卜、爆米花和圓形糖果[14]。??

自主進(jìn)食 — 9-12月齡時(shí),大部分嬰兒手的靈巧度可以滿(mǎn)足自己吃東西和用兩只手拿起標(biāo)準(zhǔn)杯喝水,并且可以吃為其他家庭成員準(zhǔn)備的食物而僅需略微加工(如,切成一口大小的小塊)。雖然如此,這一階段兒童正在逐漸提高自主進(jìn)食能力,為了滿(mǎn)足其能量和營(yíng)養(yǎng)素需求,需要將自主進(jìn)食和喂食結(jié)合起來(lái)[10]。(參見(jiàn)上文‘?huà)雰旱臓I(yíng)養(yǎng)需求’)??

喂養(yǎng)環(huán)境 — 培養(yǎng)健康的進(jìn)食習(xí)慣需要健康的喂養(yǎng)環(huán)境和健康的喂養(yǎng)關(guān)系[92-94]。在健康的喂養(yǎng)關(guān)系中,嬰兒是喂養(yǎng)互動(dòng)行為的發(fā)起者和引導(dǎo)者,而照料者必須做到以下幾點(diǎn):??

對(duì)嬰兒的饑餓和飽足信號(hào)盡快做出合理反應(yīng)??

認(rèn)清嬰兒的發(fā)育能力和進(jìn)食技巧??

在幫助嬰兒進(jìn)食與鼓勵(lì)其自主進(jìn)食之間保持平衡??

補(bǔ)充礦物質(zhì)和維生素??

鐵 — 鐵的每日最小需要量與胎齡和出生體重有關(guān),具體如下[95]:??

足月兒–1mg/kg??

早產(chǎn)兒和低出生體重兒–2-4mg/kg??

母乳喂養(yǎng)嬰兒 — 4月齡后,母乳喂養(yǎng)的足月兒對(duì)鐵的需要量可能超過(guò)單憑母乳能夠提供的量。在母乳喂養(yǎng)的基礎(chǔ)上,推薦采用一些補(bǔ)鐵方法(如,肉泥、鐵強(qiáng)化嬰兒米粉、富含鐵的蔬菜、液體鐵補(bǔ)充劑),保證至少提供鐵1mg/(kg·d)[12,95-97]。從7月齡到12月齡,嬰兒的鐵攝入量應(yīng)為11mg/d。一般而言,每日平均2份鐵強(qiáng)化嬰兒米粉(共30g或半杯干米粉)加母乳就可以滿(mǎn)足嬰兒每日的鐵需要量。給予輔食時(shí),應(yīng)盡早給予鐵含量較高的食物(表 4)。應(yīng)鼓勵(lì)照料者仔細(xì)閱讀食品標(biāo)簽,以確定每份食物的量及每種食品中鐵的每日攝入量百分比。在通過(guò)攝入輔食滿(mǎn)足鐵需求之前,可使用口服液體鐵補(bǔ)充劑。(參見(jiàn) “嬰兒和12歲以下兒童鐵缺乏的篩查、預(yù)防、臨床表現(xiàn)及診斷”,關(guān)于‘鐵缺乏的預(yù)防’一節(jié))??

配方奶喂養(yǎng)嬰兒 — 鐵強(qiáng)化配方奶(元素鐵12mg/L)喂養(yǎng)的嬰兒不需要額外補(bǔ)充鐵。??

低出生體重及早產(chǎn)兒 — 早產(chǎn)兒的鐵儲(chǔ)備常在2-3月齡前耗盡。這些嬰兒在1歲前應(yīng)持續(xù)補(bǔ)鐵至少2mg/(kg·d)[95,98]。(參見(jiàn) “嬰兒和12歲以下兒童鐵缺乏的篩查、預(yù)防、臨床表現(xiàn)及診斷”)??

氟 — 如有必要,可在嬰兒6月齡時(shí)開(kāi)始補(bǔ)充氟。氟的補(bǔ)充量取決于水的含氟量(針對(duì)使用嬰兒配方奶粉或濃縮嬰兒配方奶喂養(yǎng)的嬰兒)(表 5)和嬰兒是否存在其他氟暴露源(如,含氟牙膏)[99,100]。??

即食嬰兒配方奶中的水不含氟。如果嬰兒以即食配方奶作為唯一的營(yíng)養(yǎng)和液體來(lái)源,則需要從6月齡開(kāi)始補(bǔ)充氟。純母乳喂養(yǎng)的嬰兒也應(yīng)從6月齡起開(kāi)始補(bǔ)充氟。??

水過(guò)濾系統(tǒng)對(duì)瓶裝水氟含量的影響將單獨(dú)討論。(參見(jiàn) “Preventive dental care and counseling for infants and young children”, section on ‘Fluoride’)??

牙齒萌出后,所有兒童都可以每3-6個(gè)月在初級(jí)保健或牙科診所涂一次氟[101]。(參見(jiàn) “Preventive dental care and counseling for infants and young children”, section on ‘Topical fluoride application’)??

維生素D — 對(duì)于純母乳喂養(yǎng)的嬰兒,以及每日維生素D強(qiáng)化奶攝入量不足的非母乳喂養(yǎng)嬰兒,應(yīng)該補(bǔ)充維生素D。維生素D補(bǔ)充的推薦每日攝入量、時(shí)機(jī)、持續(xù)時(shí)間和劑量將單獨(dú)討論。(參見(jiàn) “兒童與青少年的維生素D不足與缺乏”,關(guān)于‘圍生期和嬰兒期預(yù)防’一節(jié))??

維生素B12 — 6月齡以?xún)?nèi)的嬰兒維生素B12(鈷胺素)的適宜攝入量(adequate intake, AI,以往稱(chēng)為RDA)為0.4μg/d,7-12月齡的嬰兒為0.5μg/d。??

對(duì)于母乳喂養(yǎng)的嬰兒,如果母親是嚴(yán)格素食者(即除了不吃肉以外,也不吃蛋類(lèi)和奶制品)且哺乳期未補(bǔ)充維生素B12,或者對(duì)于配方奶喂養(yǎng)的嬰兒,如果照料者為其提供的輔食為嚴(yán)格素食,則推薦為嬰兒補(bǔ)充維生素B12(表 2)[102]。維生素B12缺乏引起的不良神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)后果可能非常嚴(yán)重且不可逆。補(bǔ)充劑、某些強(qiáng)化谷物、大豆飲品和營(yíng)養(yǎng)酵母均包含具有生理活性的維生素B12。(參見(jiàn) “哺乳期母親的營(yíng)養(yǎng)”,關(guān)于‘維生素和礦物質(zhì)’一節(jié)和 “兒童素食”,關(guān)于‘維生素B12’一節(jié)和 “兒童獲得性周?chē)窠?jīng)病概述”,關(guān)于‘維生素缺乏或過(guò)量’一節(jié))??

脂溶性維生素 — 對(duì)于有慢性膽汁淤積性肝病或者脂肪吸收不良的嬰兒,應(yīng)該考慮補(bǔ)充脂溶性維生素(維生素A、D、E和K)[103]。(參見(jiàn) “膽道閉鎖”,關(guān)于‘脂溶性維生素補(bǔ)充劑’一節(jié))??

學(xué)會(huì)指南鏈接?

部分國(guó)家及地區(qū)的學(xué)會(huì)指南和政府指南的鏈接參見(jiàn)其他專(zhuān)題。(參見(jiàn) “Society guideline links: Vitamin deficiencies”和 “Society guideline links: Breastfeeding and infant nutrition”和 “Society guideline links: Healthy diet in children and adolescents”)??

患者教育?

UpToDate提供兩種類(lèi)型的患者教育資料:“基礎(chǔ)篇”和“高級(jí)篇”?;A(chǔ)篇通俗易懂,相當(dāng)于5-6年級(jí)閱讀水平(美國(guó)),可以解答關(guān)于某種疾病患者可能想了解的4-5個(gè)關(guān)鍵問(wèn)題;基礎(chǔ)篇更適合想了解疾病概況且喜歡閱讀簡(jiǎn)短易讀資料的患者。高級(jí)篇篇幅較長(zhǎng),內(nèi)容更深入詳盡;相當(dāng)于10-12年級(jí)閱讀水平(美國(guó)),適合想深入了解并且能接受一些醫(yī)學(xué)術(shù)語(yǔ)的患者。??

以下是與此專(zhuān)題相關(guān)的患者教育資料。我們建議您以打印或電子郵件的方式給予患者。(您也可以通過(guò)檢索“患者教育”和關(guān)鍵詞找到更多相關(guān)專(zhuān)題內(nèi)容。)??

基礎(chǔ)篇(參見(jiàn) “患者教育:嬰兒期的固體食物添加(基礎(chǔ)篇)”和 “患者教育:斷奶(基礎(chǔ)篇)”)??

高級(jí)篇(參見(jiàn) “Patient education: Starting solid foods during infancy (Beyond the Basics)”和 “Patient education: Weaning from breastfeeding (Beyond the Basics)”)??

總結(jié)與推薦??

不同月齡嬰兒的能量需要量不同,范圍為80-110kcal/(kg·d)。嬰兒對(duì)能量攝入具有與生俱來(lái)的自我調(diào)節(jié)能力,一些削弱饑餓驅(qū)動(dòng)性進(jìn)食行為的因素可能會(huì)影響這種自我調(diào)節(jié)能力。嬰兒對(duì)特定營(yíng)養(yǎng)素的需要量見(jiàn)表(表 1)。(參見(jiàn)上文‘?huà)雰旱臓I(yíng)養(yǎng)需求’)??

攝入充足的母乳或市售嬰兒配方奶能夠滿(mǎn)足嬰兒6月齡以?xún)?nèi)的營(yíng)養(yǎng)需求。到1歲時(shí),大部分健康嬰兒約一半的能量需要量將來(lái)自輔食(參見(jiàn)上文‘母乳和嬰兒配方奶’和‘輔食喂養(yǎng)’)。??

我們建議在4-6月齡開(kāi)始添加輔食,前提是嬰兒能夠在支持下坐穩(wěn)并且能夠很好地控制頭部和頸部(Grade 2C)。(參見(jiàn)上文‘何時(shí)開(kāi)始添加輔食’)??

輔食應(yīng)該與母乳或市售嬰兒配方奶聯(lián)合喂養(yǎng)嬰兒,以提供嬰兒生長(zhǎng)、發(fā)育和健康所需的全部營(yíng)養(yǎng)素(表 1和表 3)。應(yīng)該用勺子或嬰兒喂食器喂輔食,而不應(yīng)該用奶瓶喂,除非因醫(yī)學(xué)原因(如,胃食管反流)需要。(參見(jiàn)上文‘喂養(yǎng)何種食物’)??

應(yīng)首先添加單一成分的食物。我們建議首先添加?jì)雰汗任锖腿饽?Grade 2C)。嬰兒接受這些食物后,接著可添加水果泥和蔬菜泥。每日應(yīng)至少喂1次富含維生素C的食物。不鼓勵(lì)在輔食中添加糖和鹽。應(yīng)避免喂食蜂蜜和可能導(dǎo)致窒息的食物。(參見(jiàn)上文‘喂養(yǎng)何種食物’)??

12月齡以下的嬰兒通常不應(yīng)攝入果汁(包括100%純果汁)。對(duì)于6-12月齡的嬰兒,我們建議將完整的水果搗爛或打成水果泥后攝入,而非攝入100%純果汁,除非因醫(yī)學(xué)原因而需要(Grade 2C)。(參見(jiàn)上文‘應(yīng)該避免的飲料’)??

因醫(yī)學(xué)原因而需要攝入果汁時(shí),嬰兒應(yīng)飲用經(jīng)巴氏消毒的100%純果汁而非“果汁飲料”,后者添加有甜味劑和香料。當(dāng)嬰兒年齡合適時(shí),應(yīng)該用杯子而非奶瓶飲用果汁。(參見(jiàn)上文‘應(yīng)該避免的飲料’)??

當(dāng)嬰兒出現(xiàn)吃飽的表現(xiàn)時(shí)(如,身體后傾或者轉(zhuǎn)開(kāi)),應(yīng)允許其停止進(jìn)食。(參見(jiàn)上文‘喂多少’)??

隨著嬰兒進(jìn)食能力的發(fā)展,應(yīng)逐漸提高輔食的復(fù)雜程度和質(zhì)地。當(dāng)嬰兒耐受混合食物中的各個(gè)成分后,可喂以混合食物。食物的質(zhì)地應(yīng)從稀開(kāi)始,逐漸過(guò)渡到稠的泥糊狀食物。大約8月齡時(shí),嬰兒通常能夠咀嚼和吞咽更為固體的食物(如,煮熟的意大利面、蔬菜)。8-10月齡間,嬰兒通常能夠開(kāi)始進(jìn)食手指食物。到9-12月齡時(shí),大部分嬰兒能夠自主進(jìn)食,但是為了滿(mǎn)足能量和營(yíng)養(yǎng)素的需求,需要將自主進(jìn)食和喂食相結(jié)合。(參見(jiàn)上文‘如何推進(jìn)’)??

母乳喂養(yǎng)的嬰兒自4月齡起,需要通過(guò)一些方法來(lái)補(bǔ)鐵以滿(mǎn)足其鐵需求[1mg/(kg·d)],例如鐵強(qiáng)化嬰兒米粉、肉泥、富含鐵的蔬菜和液體鐵補(bǔ)充劑。采用鐵強(qiáng)化配方奶喂養(yǎng)的嬰兒不需要額外補(bǔ)鐵。(參見(jiàn)上文‘鐵’)??

嬰兒應(yīng)從6月齡開(kāi)始補(bǔ)充氟,具體取決于水的含氟量(表 5)以及嬰兒是否存在其他氟暴露源。(參見(jiàn)上文‘氟’)??

對(duì)于純母乳喂養(yǎng)的嬰兒,以及維生素D強(qiáng)化嬰兒配方奶每日攝入量不足的非母乳喂養(yǎng)嬰兒,應(yīng)該補(bǔ)充維生素D。(參見(jiàn) “兒童與青少年的維生素D不足與缺乏”,關(guān)于‘圍生期和嬰兒期預(yù)防’一節(jié))??

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